Paclobutrazol (Ref: PP 333) |
Last updated: 28/08/2024 |
(Also known as: paclobutrazole) |
SUMMARY |
Data alerts |
The following alerts are based on the data in the tables below. An absence of an alert does not imply the substance has no implications for human health, biodiversity or the environment but just that we do not have the data to form a judgement.
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A conazole plant growth regulator with some fungicidal activity for ornamentals, fruit and other crops to inhibit vegetative growth | |
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Vegetative growth - cell division | |
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Mango; Cotton; Corn; Chilli; Bonzi production; Grape vines | |
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Current | |
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1986, introduced |
UK regulatory status |
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Approved | ||
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31/05/2026 | ||
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Check label - may vary with formulation |
EC Regulation 1107/2009 (repealing 91/414) |
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Approved | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Austria/Romania | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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31/08/2026 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Yes - two 'Persistent-Bioaccumulative-Toxic' criteria | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Yes | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Additional information |
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Australia |
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Chemical structure |
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A molecule with two chiral centres. The technical material is a racemate comprising equimolar amounts of (2R,3R)- and (2S,3S)-1-(4-chlorophenyl)-4,4-dimethyl-2-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)pentan-3-ol. | |
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C₁₅H₂₀ClN₃O | |
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CC(C)(C)C(C(CC1=CC=C(C=C1)Cl)N2C=NC=N2)O | |
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CC(C)(C)[C@H]([C@@H](CC1=CC=C(C=C1)Cl)N2C=NC=N2)O | |
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RMOGWMIKYWRTKW-UHFFFAOYSA-N | |
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InChI=1S/2C15H20ClN3O/c2*1-15(2,3)14(20)13(19-10-17-9-18-19)8-11-4-6-12(16)7-5-11/h2*4-7,9-10,13-14,20H,8H2,1-3H3/t2*13-,14-/m10/s1 | |
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Yes |
General status |
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Plant Growth Regulator, Fungicide | |
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Triazole fungicide | |
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930 g kg⁻¹ | |
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EU dossier - None declared | |
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Synthetic | |
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Absorbed through leaves, stem and roots and translocated. Gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitor | |
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76738-62-0 | |
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616-379-6 | |
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445 | |
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125601 | |
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73671 | |
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603-239-00-4 | |
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293.8 | |
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- | |
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(2RS,3RS)-1-(4-chlorophenyl)-4,4-dimethyl-2-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)pentan-3-ol | |
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(αR,βR)-rel-β-((4-chlorophenyl)methyl)-α-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole-1-ethanol | |
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Possible groundwater pollutant | |
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- | |
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Not applicable | |
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Not applicable | |
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Not applicable | |
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Not applicable | |
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- | |
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White to beige coloured crystalline solid |
Formulations |
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Often supplied as a suspension concentrate that is mixed with water and used as a spray |
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22.9 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Low | ||||||||
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72400 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Acetone5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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5670 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Xylene5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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150000 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Methanol5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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199 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) n-Heptane5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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164 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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384 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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1.29 X 1003 | Calculated | - | |||||||
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3.11 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
High | ||||||||
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Likely to be soluble | Q3 Q = Miscellaneous data from online sources 3 = Unverified data of known source |
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Based on chemical group | Q3 Q = Miscellaneous data from online sources 3 = Unverified data of known source |
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1.23 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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0.0019 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Low volatility | ||||||||
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2.39 X 10-05 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Non-volatile | ||||||||
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Neutral solution: 222nm = 10900, 260nm = 233, 267nm = 294, 276nm = 236 Acidic solution: 221nm = 17500, 260nm = 228, 267nm = 284, 276nm = 229 Basic solution: 221nm = 12800, 260nm = 222, 267nm = 280, 276nm = 225 No absorbance > ca 280nm |
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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66.0 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) at 20.5 °C]5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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Degradation |
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112 | B5 B = UK CRD and ACP Evaluation Documents / and other DEFRA (UK) documents; Also Chemicals Regulation Division, Health and Safety Executive (HSE), UK (click here ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Persistent | |||||||
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120 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Persistent | ||||||||
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29.5 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Non-persistent | ||||||||
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577.5 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Very persistent | ||||||||
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98.1 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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EU dossier lab studies DT₅₀ range 27.1-618 days (normalised), DT₉₀ range 143-2053 days, field studies DT₅₀ range 27.2-60.8 days (normalised), DT₉₀ range 46.7-202 days; Other studies: DT₅₀ (1) lab 84-140 days, field 6-13 months (B4), (2) US sources: 200 days (DW4) | ||||||||||
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4.4 | R3 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications 3 = Unverified data of known source |
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Wheat, whole plant, n=1 | ||||||||||
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6.0 | R3 R = Peer reviewed scientific publications 3 = Unverified data of known source |
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OSR, whole plant, n=1 | ||||||||||
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Stable | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Stable | |||||||
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Stable | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Stable | |||||||
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Stable pH 4 to pH 9 over 30 days at 25 °C | ||||||||||
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787 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Stable | ||||||||
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164 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Stable | ||||||||
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As this parameter is not normally measured directly, a surrogate measure is used: ‘Photochemical oxidative DT₅₀’. Where data is available, this can be found in the Fate Indices section below. | ||||||||||
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Soil adsorption and mobility |
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- | DW3 DW = Don Wauchope personal database for Pka data: Wauchope, R. D. and Edwards, J. Dissociation constants for pesticide active ingredients: a database and comparison with predicted values. Dataset is no longer available. 3 = Unverified data of known source |
Moderately mobile | |||||||
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400 | ||||||||||
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4.3 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderately mobile | |||||||
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210 | ||||||||||
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0.93 | ||||||||||
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EU dossier kf range 0.68-15.1 mL g⁻¹, Kfoc range 34.7-665.3 mL g⁻¹, 1/n range 0.87-0.97, Soils=13 | ||||||||||
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Fate indices |
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2.47 | Calculated | Transition state | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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1.33 X 10-01 | Calculated | - | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Low | Calculated | - | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Moderately mobile | Calculated | - | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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7.65 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Calculated using the Atkinson method. Assumed 1.5E+06 OH/cm³, 12 hr5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Below the level of concern for long-range air transport | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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44 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Low potential | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Not available | - |
Known soil metabolites |
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Minor fraction | - | - | |||||
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Major fraction | 0.251 | CAS 930-33-6; Syngenta verified | |||||
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Major fraction | 0.263 | CAS 63190-87-4; Syngenta verifird | |||||
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Minor fraction | 0.03 | - |
Known groundwater metabolites |
None
Other known metabolites |
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2-amino-3-1,2,4-triazole-1-yl-propionic acid (Ref: CGA 131013) | triazole alanine | Plant | - | ||||
3-hydroxy-1H-1,2,4-triazole, hydroxy triazole (Ref: NOA 457654) | - | Surface water; Sediment | - | ||||
(2S,3S)-1-(4-chlorophenyl)-4,4-dimethyl-2-(1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-pentan-3-ol (Ref: R112526) | hydroxy ketone | Surface water; Sediment; Animal commodities | - | ||||
5-(4-chlorophenyl)-2,2-dimethyl-4-(1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)pentane-1,3-diol (Ref: SYN 536408) | diol | Surface water; Sediment | - | ||||
2-hydroxy-3-[1,2,4]-triazole-1-yl-propionic acid (Ref: CGA 205369) | triazole lactic acid | Plant | - |
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Terrestrial ecotoxicology |
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1336 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Rat5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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2.5 | B5 B = UK CRD and ACP Evaluation Documents / and other DEFRA (UK) documents; Also Chemicals Regulation Division, Health and Safety Executive (HSE), UK (click here ) Rat5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
High | |||||||
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> 117 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Rat Reproductive NOAEL5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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> 2100 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Colinus virginianus5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Low | ||||||||
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> 2000 mg kg feed⁻¹ | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Colinus virginianus5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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118.6 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Anas platyrhynchos5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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> 500 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Eisenia foetida corr5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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0.845 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Eisenia foetida corr5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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Nitrogen mineralisation: No significant adverse effect at 77 days Carbon mineralisation: No significant adverse effect at 21 days |
A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes Dose: 20 kg ha⁻¹ |
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58.3 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Tomato5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes Seedling emergence, ER₅₀ as g ha⁻¹ |
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> 40 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Apis mellifera5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | |||||||
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> 2 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Apis mellifera5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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3.9 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Chrysoperla carnea5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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16.7 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Aphidius rhopalosiphi5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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> 1000 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Typhlodromus pyri5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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0 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Poecilus cupreus5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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Aquatic ecotoxicology |
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23.6 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Lepomis macrochirus5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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3.3 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Salmo gairdneri5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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> 18.76 | F4 F = U.S. EPA ECOTOX database / U.S. EPA pesticide fate database / Miscellaneous WHO documents / FAO data, IPCS INCHEM data (US EPA Databases Related to Pesticide Risk Assessment ) Danio rerio4 = Verified data |
Moderate | ||||||||
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33.2 | B5 B = UK CRD and ACP Evaluation Documents / and other DEFRA (UK) documents; Also Chemicals Regulation Division, Health and Safety Executive (HSE), UK (click here ) Daphnia magna5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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0.32 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Daphnia magna5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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0.0082 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Lemna gibba5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
High | ||||||||
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7.2 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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General |
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High (class III) | - | - | ||||||||
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1336 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Rat5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
Moderate | ||||||||
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2000 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Rat5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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3.13 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) Rat 4 hr (nose only)5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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0.022 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) 5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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0.1 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) SF=1005 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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0.1 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) SF=1005 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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No unacceptable risks to bystanders identified | |||||||||
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No unacceptable risks to operators or other workers identified | ||||||||||
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0.1 | A5 A = EU regulatory and evaluation data as published by EC, EFSA (RAR, DAR & Conclusion dossiers), EMA (e.g. EU Annex III PIC DGD) (EU - Pesticides database; EFSA Scientific Publications ) EU Dir 89/778/EC limit; Calc MAC=300 µg l⁻¹5 = Verified data used for regulatory purposes |
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Health issues |
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Harmful if inhaled or swallowed |
Handling issues |
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Not explosive or oxidising IMDG Transport Hazard Class 4.1 Flammable Not expected to auto-ignite |
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Health: H302, H312, H319, H332, H361 Environment: H400, H410 Handling: H228 |
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II (Moderately hazardous) | |||
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UN1325 | |||
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Packaging Group II (moderate danger) | |||
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Limited shelf-life. Store at 2-8 DegC |
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paclobutrazol | ||
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paclobutrazol | ||
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Paclobutrazol | ||
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paclobutrazol | ||
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paclobutrazolo | ||
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paclobutrazol | ||
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paklobutrazol | ||
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- | ||
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paklobutrazol | ||
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paclobutrazool | ||
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paklobutrazol |
Record last updated: | 28/08/2024 |
Contact: | aeru@herts.ac.uk |
Please cite as: | Lewis, K.A., Tzilivakis, J., Warner, D. and Green, A. (2016) An international database for pesticide risk assessments and management. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 22(4), 1050-1064. DOI: 10.1080/10807039.2015.1133242 |